The Roman invasion of Britain in 55 BC and its
subsequent incorporation into the Roman Empire stimulated
development and brought more active contacts with the rest of
Europe. As Rome’s strength declined the country again was
exposed to invasion-including the pivotal incursions of the
Angles Saxons and Jutes in the fifth and sixth centuries AD -- up
to the Norman conquest in 1066. Norman rule effectively ensured
Britain’s safety from further intrusions and so that
certain institutions which remain characteristic of Britain could
develop. Among these institutions are a political administrative
cultural and economic center in London; a separate but
established church; a system of common law; distinctive and
distinguished university education; and representative
government.
Union
Both Wales and Scotland were independent kingdoms
that fiercely resisted English rule. The English conquest of
Wales succeeded in 1282 under Edward I and the Statute of
Rhuddlan established English rule 2 years later. To appease the
Welsh Edward’s son (later Edward II) who had been born in
Wales was made Prince of Wales in 1301. The tradition of
bestowing this title on the eldest son of the British monarch
continues today. An act of 1536 completed the political and
administrative union of England and Wales.
While maintaining separate parliaments England and
Scotland were ruled under one crown begining in 1603 when James
VI of Scotland succeeded his cousin Elizabeth I as James I of
England. In the ensuing 100 years strong religious and political
differences divided the kingdoms. Finally in 1707 England and
Scotland were unified as Great Britain sharing a single
Parliament and flag (the "Union Jack").
Ireland’s invasion by the Anglo-Normans in
1170 led to centuries of strife. Successive English kings sought
to conquer Ireland. In the early 17th century large-scale
settlement of the north from Scotland and England began. After
its defeat Ireland was subjected with varying degrees of success
to control and regulation by Britain.
The legislative union of Great Britain and Ireland was completed
on January 1 1801 under the name of the United Kingdom. However
armed struggle for independence continued sporadically into the
20th century. The Anglo-Irish Treaty of 1921 established the
Irish Free State which subsequently left the Commonwealth and
became a republic after World War II. Six northern predominantly
Protestant counties have remained part of the United Kingdom.
British Expansion and Empire
Begun initially to support William the
Conqueror’s (c. 1029-1087) holdings in France
Britain’s policy of active involvement in European affairs
endured for several hundred years. By the end of the 14th century
foreign trade originally based on wool exports to Europe had
emerged as a cornerstone of national policy.
The foundations of sea power were gradually laid to
protect English trade and open up new routes. Defeat of the
Spanish Armada in 1588 firmly established England as a major sea
power. Thereafter its interests outside Europe grew steadily.
Attracted by the spice trade English mercantile interests spread
first to the Far East. In search of an alternate route to the
Spice Islands John Cabot reached the North American continent in
1498. Sir Walter Raleigh organized the first short-lived colony
in Virginia in 1584 and permanent English settlement began in
1607 at Jamestown Virginia. During the next 2 centuries Britain
extended its influence abroad and consolidated its political
development at home.
Great Britain’s industrial revolution greatly strengthened
its ability to oppose Napoleonic France. By the end of the
Napoleonic Wars in 1815 the United Kingdom was the foremost
European power and its navy ruled the seas. Peace in Europe
allowed the British to focus their interests on more remote parts
of the world and during this period the British Empire reached
its zenith. British colonial expansion reached its height largely
during the reign of Queen Victoria (1837-1901). Queen
Victoria’s reign witnessed the spread of British technology
commerce language and government throughout the British Empire
which at its greatest extent encompassed roughly one-quarter to
one-fifth of the world’s area and population. British
colonies contributed to the United Kingdom’s extraordinary
economic growth and strengthened its voice in world affairs. Even
as the United Kingdom became more imperial abroad it continued to
develop and broaden its democratic institutions at home.
20th Century
By the time of Queen Victoria’s death in 1901
other nations including the United States and Germany had
developed their own industries; the United Kingdom’s
comparative economic advantage had lessened and the ambitions of
its rivals had grown. The losses and destruction of World War I
the depression of the 1930s and decades of relatively slow growth
made it difficult for the United Kingdom to maintain its
preeminent international position of the previous century.
Britain’s control over its empire loosened
during the interwar period. Ireland with the exception of six
northern counties broke away from the United Kingdom in 1921.
Nationalism became stronger in other parts of the empire
particularly in India and Egypt.
In 1926 the U.K. completing a process begun a
century earlier granted Australia Canada and New Zealand complete
autonomy within the empire. They became charter members of the
British Commonwealth of Nations (now known as the Commonwealth)
an informal but closely knit association that succeeded the
empire. Beginning with the independence of India and Pakistan in
1947 the remainder of the British Empire was almost completely
dismantled. Today most of Britain’s former colonies belong
to the Commonwealth almost all of them as independent members.
There are however 13 former British colonies -- including Bermuda
Gibraltar and the Falkland Islands -- which have elected to
continue their political links with London and are known as
United Kingdom Overseas Territories.
Although weakened by economic and political
nationalism the Commonwealth offers the United Kingdom a voice in
matters concerning many developing countries. In addition the
Commonwealth helps preserve many institutions deriving from
British experience and models such as parliamentary democracy in
those countries.
